(Learning/ Memory/Forgetting)
Learning: Nature of Learning (Behavioral Vs. Cognitive
,Instinct and complex form of Learning, Classical Conditioning and its
application,Operent conditioning and behavioral modification and shaping,
cognitive learning(Cognitive map, insight and observational learning)Memory-
Memory Phenomena and basic Process (encoding, storage and retrieval)Models
of Memory: Parallel Distributed processing model and Information processing
Model,Retival (Cues,recall,recognition,reconstruction and automatic encoding)Forgetting:
Nature and causes of Forgetting, Memory and the brain, Amnesia and false
memory
Definition of
Learning
Morgan, King, Weiz and Schopler (1993) Learning can be defined as “any relatively permanent change in
behaviour that occurs as a result of practice or experience”.
This definition has 3 important elements-
Ø Learning is a change in behavior, for better or worse.
Ø It is a change that takes place through practice or experience, changes due to growth or maturation are not
learning.
Ø Before it can be called learning, the change must be relatively permanent; it must last for a long time.
Grandner Murphy, “The term learning covers every modification
in behaviour to meet Environmental requirements”.
Kingsley and Garry, “Learning is the process by which behaviour
is originated or changes through practice or Trainings”
Characteristics/Nature
of Learning
Ø It is Universal and
continuous process not limited to any particular age, sex, race and
culture.
Ø Learning is a process not the product.
Ø Learning brings about the change in behavior but it does not
necessarily mean these changes is always positive.
Ø The change in behavior that results through learning is relatively permanent.
Ø The changes in behavior resulting due to the effect of maturation, instinct, drug or illness are not
considered as learned behavior.
Ø All learning is purposeful and goal oriented. If there is no purpose,
it would be hard to learn.
Ø Many times learning results from repeated practice but sometime through
the day to day experience.
Types of Learning
1. Verbal learning: skills needed for communication eg- The language, Signs, pictures,
symbols, words, figures, sounds and voices etc.
2. Motor learning: Acquisition of various skills through such learning helps to perform
the task
Example- swim,
riding a horse, driving a car, flying a plane, playing the piano, drawing a
geometrical design.
3. Concept
learning: A concept is the generalized idea about the things,
persons or events. For example:
Vegetable: cauliflower, beans, and coriander leaf/ Animals: Rat, Cow, Tiger,
Elephant
4. Problem solving learning: It use the cognitive abilities to draw
the conclusions to address the problem.
5. Serial
learning: Learning that follows
sequential or serial order. Eg-lists of material such
as the alphabet, multiplication tables, the names of the states in their
country,
6. Associative
Learning- Association between two stimulus.Eg –Classical Conditioning
and Operant Conditioning. Acquisition of various skills through such learning
helps to perform the task
7. Observational
Learning- We look and we learn, it is also known as social or
Imitational learning.Repeatition of Observable behavior.
8. Episodic Learning – Change in
Behaviour that occurs as the result of an event.Eg- Fear of dog Bitten.9. Rote Learning –Focus on the memorizing the materials so
that it can be recalled by the learner exactly the way it was read or hear. The
major practice of root learning is learning by repetition…
Cognitive Vs.
Behaviorist Theory
I) Behavioral Theory (S-R Theory) – They interpret learning in terms of association
between stimulus and response. Behavioristic assumes that Learning plays vital role in
shaping individuals behaviour. For example: A child who says "Kaley" when he sees
the family dog has learned to associate a stimulus (the animal) with a verbal
response ("Kaley").
Following
are the example of Behavioral Theory:
1.
Pavlov's classical
conditioning
2.
Thorndike's trial and error
3.
Skinner's operant
conditioning
II. Cognitive Theory (SOR)– It belongs to the
school of Gestalt psychology and cognitive psychology. These theories emphasize
the purpose, insight, understanding and other cognitive factors in the process
of learning. Tasks involving memorizing, problem solving, and thinking can be
easily understood within the framework of cognitive psychology.
1.
Tolman's sign learning:
Cognitive Map
2.
Bandura's observational
learning
3.
Kohler's Theory of Insightful learning,
Instinct and Complex Learning
i)
Instinct Learning
An instinct is
automatic, involuntary and unlearned behavior pattern consistently released by
animal/organism in presence of particular stimuli.It is inborn tendency that is
found in members of specific groups.For example, crying during pain is
instinct. The behaviors that are the result of instinct can not be considered
learned behavior.Instincts help us primarily in survival.
ii)
Complex Learning: Complex learning focus tasks involving memorizing,
problem solving, and thinking can be most easily understood within the
framework of cognitive psychology not only by SR.A cognitive explanation of behavior
postulates the existence of mental processes that operates on the stimulus in
different ways-depending upon the context in which the stimulus occurs and the
individual's past learning experiences to arrive at a response. Such processes
involve more than an automatic response elicited by a stimulus input.
Behavioral Theory:
1.
Classical Conditioning
2.
Operant Conditioning
3. Trial
and Error
1.
Classical Conditioning/Respondent Conditioning/ Pavlovian conditioning.
Classical Conditioning gets its name from the fact that the experiment was done in early “classical” period by Russian Psychologists Ivan. V. Pavlov.
Classical Conditioning gets its name from the fact that the experiment was done in early “classical” period by Russian Psychologists Ivan. V. Pavlov.
Here, Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) = Meat/
Unconditioned Response (UCR) = Saliva/ Neutral Stimulus (NS) = Bell/ Conditions
Stimulus (CS) = Bell+ Meat/ Conditioned Response (CR) = Saliva
Before
Conditioning________________
UCS (Meat in mouth) à UCR (Salvation)
NS (Bell) à No UCR
(no salivation)
During
Conditioning________________
Neutral Stimulus +
UCS à UCR (Salivation)
After
Conditioning_____ ________________
CS (tone or Bell) à CR (Salivation)
Before conditioning The Tone of Bell was neutral
stimuli ,the response was pricking sound and irritation only but not the
saliva, but the same tone resulted saliva in dogs mouth after conditioning.
Major Process/ Phenomena/Principles
Acquisition, Extinction, Spontaneous recovery,
Generalization, Discrimination
1. Acquisition
(association phase) :The acquisition phase is the Training stage ,during which the animal is
learning the stimulus- Response relationship. Pairing of the NS (bell) and the UCS (food) is the acquisition phase. That
produces a CR (salivation). In the example above, Acquisition phase
occurs when the dog begins to salivate at the sound of the bell.
2. Extension: To produce extinction, one needs to end the association between previously
Conditioned stimuli. (Association of Bell and Meat) which decrease the rate of
responses.
Example: when the experimenter sounded the bell (NS) again
and again without presenting food (UCS), the responses decrease (the amount
saliva gradually decrease in each time).
3. Spontaneous Recovery: In this phase the learner seems to forget the gap of time or the
extinction has occurred in his life and shows Conditioned response (CR) again.
Experimenter claims that, here the response is as rapid than the previous (Original) one..
Example: When Pavlov
rang a bell, the dog once again salivated as equal to previous one (before
extension)
4.Generalization: Generalization is the tendency to respond to stimuli similar to original conditioned stimulus.
4.Generalization: Generalization is the tendency to respond to stimuli similar to original conditioned stimulus.
Example:- Dogs was conditioned to
salivate in response to a specific bell(CS) but it also salivated when slight
changes on the sound of the bell was made (Buzzer or beat of a
metronome). If Pavlov’s dog heard
a bell of a similar tone, the dog would still salivate.
5. Discrimination: Stimulus Discrimination occur when the ability is there to
differentiate between stimuli. The opposite of generalization,
discrimination happens. When a conditioned response does not occur or, when
there is a difference between the presented stimulus and the original
conditioned stimulus. If Pavlov’s dog heard a bell with a
different tone and was not awarded the unconditioned stimulus (food), the dog
would learn not to salivate to the second tone.
Application of Classical Conditioning
i.
Treatment
of the Behavior Problem (Treatment of Bed Wetting Children)
ii.
Treatment
of Phobias
iii.
Study
of Sensory Capacity (Especially a child with hearing Deficiency)
2. OPERANT CONDITIONING, B.F
SKINNER BEGAN HIS EXPERIMENT 1930’S.
Deep Influenced and based on the assumption
of Eward L.
Thorndike’s Law of effect which states that: Role of reward and punishment has greater
role in the process of learning.
Ø
Reward motivates and
encourages the organism to learn with more intensity.(Rewarded behaviour is
likely to reoccur) Satisfaction lead to the repetition of action( learner
takes pleasure on it and continue the
action)
Ø
Any form of punishment
discourages organism from learning. Punishment leads to withdrawal of action.
(When learners meet with failure or get no satisfaction blocks the path of
learning)
Operant Conditioning is learning in which a Voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its
favorable or unfavorable consequences. The experiment was conducted in Rat
and Pigeon
Major Phenomena in operant/Instrumental
Conditioning
1. Extinction-It is similar notion as classical
conditioning. In Operant conditioning, the rate of responding (pressing the
bar) decreases when the reinforcement (food and water) is constantly absent
after pressing the bar.
2. Spontaneous Recovery – The phenomenon of Spontaneous recovery also
applies to operant conditioning, when the animal receives food after
returning to chamber following a lapse(interval) of time, it started to press
the lever to deliver food again more frequently.
3. Stimulus Generalization – Generalization function quite similarly in
both classical and instrumental conditioning.
Eg- In Instrumental Conditioning Skinner trained Pigeon s to peak at a key
lit by yellow light,
later, same pigeons were tested with light of
varying wavelengths(similar),the result
showed the generalized effect.
4. Discrimination- In operant conditioning the
rat and Pigeon learns to discriminate between the stimuli. Suppose the rat is trained to press the bar
to get the food when a green light is on.The rat presses the bar only when the
green light is on and does not press the bar when there is other light.
The light becomes the discriminating stimulus for the responses.
5. Shaping-Shaping refers to gradually molding or training an organism to perform
a specific response (behavior) by reinforcing them. Where targeted behavior are
reinforced. Shaping modifies behavior by reinforcing organism to respond
in the targeted behavior .without the help of shaping organisms would
rarely occur such behavior in their
lifetime, otherwise. Most of the behaviors of animals shown in circus is the example
of Shaping.
Shaping can be done by the help of: Praise, Reinforcement, Punishment, and Training
6. Reinforcement: A reinforcement is any stimulus that
increases the probability that a previous behaviour will occur again.
Reinforcement is an event or stimulus that increases the frequency of response.
Tools of
Reinforcements: Food, Water, A Nod, Smile, positive comment, Promotion Bonuses, toys and grades can serve as
reinforces etc.
Mainly there are 3 basic types of reinforces.
1. Positive and negative
Reinforcer:
Ø
Positive
Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus makes behavior more
likely to occur again.(it increases
the probability of response)Example: Bonus,Toy,Promotion
Ø Negative - It is an
event or stimuli that strengthen a response by reducing or removing an aversive
(liked/want to do) Stimulus.
2. Primary and
Secondary Reinforcer
Ø Primary
reinforcement- Instinctive leads to satisfaction of basic
survival needs such as food, water, sex, shelter. Which works more strongly for
animals than human beings.
Ø Secondary
reinforcement – These are not the basic
survival needs but motivates people easily such as; Promotion, Good grads,
Money
3. Immediate and Delayed Reinforce:
Immediate
and delayed reinforces are concerned
the duration or gap in between the desired activity and reinforcement.
The delay between the response and the reinforce, slower the learning. Eg- Salary
received at the end of month, the Grade at the end of semester.
Schedules of Reinforcement
a. Continuous Reinforcement:
b. Fixed Interval Reinforcement:
c. Fixed Ratio Reinforcement schedule
d. Variable Reinforcement Schedule.
A.Continuous reinforcement schedule:
Here, reinforcement or reward is given in every correct response of the organism during acquisition of a learning. Under the continuous schedules of reinforcement learning occurs rapidly.
Here, reinforcement or reward is given in every correct response of the organism during acquisition of a learning. Under the continuous schedules of reinforcement learning occurs rapidly.
For example: Reward for student in each step for solving
the equitation or maintaining discipline.
b.Fixed
interval reinforcement schedule: In this schedule the organism is rewarded for a response made only
after a set interval of time. No matter, How many times subject has given
correct response during this fixed interval of time; it is only on the expiry
of the fixed interval, that he is presented with some reinforcement .( every 1
year/every 1 hour, every 5 sec)
c.Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule : In this schedule the
reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses.
For example, a pigeon is provided with grain
after each 6 pecks to the key.
4.Variable reinforcement schedule: In this case reinforcement is irregular.The individual does not know
when he is going to be rewarded and consequently he remains motivated
throughout the learning process in the wait of reinforcement.
Example:
gambling devices or, Fishing: because
no one can predict when a fish is going to bite
Usefulness of Operant Conditioning
Ø Business- Many companies are using reinforcing
principles to influence Productivities
Ø Clinic/Hospitals
Ø Behaviour
Modification-
Ø At Home –for the effective performance we can reward
or punish.
Ø In Education-Appreciate or reward for good grade.
Ø Operant
Conditioning principles have been applied in solving social issues like-Crime,
Health care issues, Consumer Affairs…
Transfer of Learning
When the
acquisition of one skill influences the acquisition of another skill it is
known as the transfer of learning.
There are different types of transfer of
Learning:
a. Positive Transfer
b. Negative Transfer
c. Zero Transfer
a.Positive Transfer- In
positive Transfer the influence is
progressive and coordinating to later learning .It is Similarity of contents(Nepali and Hindi script),Similarity of
Techniques( Driving Bike and Sooty),Similarities of Principles/Formulas
(multiplication table)
b.Negative Transfer: If
learning of one skill hampers the acquisition of another skill is known as
negative transfer. This phenomenon is called habit Interference. Negative transference creates great
difficulty in future learning of the skill.
Example: While writing the date we may continue to
write September after October has arrives.We may remember
previous mobile number after
changing that number.
3.Zero Transfer :When no transfer occurs between two tasks we call it zero transfer, the
acquisition of skill in one task neither facilities learning of another task
nor, interferences, such situation is called Zero transfer or no transfer. Eg- Learning
mathematics has no use in learning Nepali..
Trial
and Error Theory/American psychologist E.L Thorndike(experiment on Cat)
In most
of the learning, organism counters error but with the repeated trials the error
reduce. After the certain period organism learns without error. In simple sense
it is known as trial and error. American
psychologist E.L Thorndike stressed that “We all Learn by Trial and Error Process, no one learn by reasoning”. Trial and Error process is the simplest
problem-solving approach. It does not follow the systematic
approach while learning.
Stages of Trial and Error
a. Blockage/barrier in satisfaction of Need–
Trial and error occur only
when there is a barrier between need and satisfaction of need.
Example-In present experiment satisfaction of hunger was
only possible through consumption of food but there was a barrier in achieving
the food. The barrier was the problem and attempts to solve the problem lead to
trial and error.
b.Random Movement- Lack of knowledge of right
response lead to random activities.When Learner starts to perform at
the first time, he attempts blindly without understanding and knowing meaningfully.( In present study Cat, tried to get out of
the box)
c. Change success /Accidental success– The first solution is always the accidental success. Every type of
Learning follows some obstacles or, Blockage. To removes this Blockage, Learner
attempts random and unnecessary activities. (As a result of this Striving and random movement the cat, by chance,
succeeded in opening the door)
d.Selection and Rejection- (selection of
Proper Movement) during the random movement learner sorts out the
successful movements or the responses lead to the goal.(Gradually, the cat recognized the correct manipulation of the Latch.
thus, it select the proper way of manipulating the latch out of its random
movements)
e.Repetition of the successful Movements
/Fixation-– After the successful attainment of goal, the learner
establishes the appropriate habits. He enjoys repeating the successful
activities. At last, the cat learned
the proper way of opening the door by eliminating all the incorrect responses
and fixing only the right responses. Now it was able to open the door without
any error. Or, in other words, learned the way of opening door.
Throndike propounded the following laws of
Learning on the basis of his Theory
i.Law of Readiness- According to Thorndike, “Readiness is preparation of
action.” Readiness refers to the physical and
psychological preparedness of learner to the particular action. It makes learning smooth, pleasant and being
involved.
2. Law of Exercise – It is the principle of Rehearsal or the frequency principle. If Stimulus- Response connection is tied
repeatedly, the Strength response will be increased. This principle is
based on ‘Practice makes one
perfect”.
3.The Law of Effect- Rewarded behavior
are likely to reoccur again and punishable behaviour are likely abandon.
Criticism of Trial and Error Learning
Ø Learning is by product of brain function. so, while learning: learners
mental mechanism cannot be ignored.
Ø Learner always does not involve in his learning activities due to
reward or positive reinforcement but due to observation (Imitation) too.
Ø If there is the intense emotion or eagerness and experience, the
learner can easily learn without repeating same errors.
Implications of Thorndike's Theory
Ø Not only the animals but human learning
also, to a great extent follows the path of trial and error.
Ø Even the discoveries and inventions in various fields of knowledge are
the results of Trial and error process.
Ø Kitchen, while cooking.
Ø At home,
Ø While learning new skills,
Ø School
Ø playground etc
Cognitive Theory of Learning- Insightful Learning, Cognitive map and
Observational Learning
INSIGHTFUL LEARNING
Kohler
and Koffka used the term “Insight” in 1913 while conducting the experiment on
Chimpanzee, sultan by name. Insight
Learning is the sudden understanding
between problem and solution. Once
solved, the problem, not matter how many times repeated, will no longer be a
problem.
Example :( It is the “aha” or “I’ve got it”
experience when we suddenly solve the problem.
Learning is not Trial and Error, nor it occurs by
random step and learning is not by conducting but all learning are by Insight,
Kohler, Dissatisfied with the approaches of
behaviorists', According to them, in learning process. Sometimes Insightful learning seems to
occur in flash. One suddenly sees how to solve the problem/equation or finish a
puzzle?
Insightful Learning depends
upon/Characteristics
Ø
Experience- Past experience is helpful in the
insightful solution of problems. Age, past experience, familiarity, and keen
observation facilitates insight learning.
Ø
Intelligence
– Insightful solution depends
upon the basic intelligence of the learner.
Ø
Learning
Situation – Some situation are more
favorable than others. Insight will come easily if the required materials and
tools are arranged in a perfect order to perceive the relationship. Example:
Sultan could solve the problem because he could see the boxes or the sticks
near him).
Ø Initial effort- In the form of simple trial and error
mechanism, open the way for insightful learning.
Ø Repetition and Generalization- Once a solution occurs with insight, it can
be applied in new similar situation
COGNITIVE MAP: TOLMAN'S SIGN
LEARNING (MAZE)-
(Maze)-A network of path designed
as a puzzle through which one has to find a way)
Cognitive map is a metal representation of a maze, memorizing special locations and directions of the maze pathways. In one of the experiment on maze learning by
rats.
(Tolman & Honrik, 1930) revealed that
cognitive processes play an important and active role in learning. Their
experiment showed that if no rewards are given during learning period…The learning
takes place passively (Learning becomes
invisible) But, when rewards are given in the mazes goal box rats
immediately perform as good as rats can do. The rewards provided for rat to run in that maze box was food. Tolman
called this phenomena 'latent learning' which means a new
behaviour is learned but is not seen unless reward is provided for displaying
it. This was possible because rat had developed certain outline in the mind
about the path of the maze. This mental
picture of the pathways of maze is called cognitive map.
Almost
all the organism develops cognitive map within their self (in their
mind).People take the help of
cognitive map while driving or
traveling. Similarly, Animals and birds also use the cognitive map to
come back to their shelter after their grazing.
Observational Learning (social
Cognitive theory)
Observational learning, also known as social
learning, imitational learning, it is developed
by Albert Bandura (Stanford
University psychologist) and Richard Walters (1963) .They criticized that theories based on animal
behavior which cannot explain every aspect of human behaviors
They put
forwarded the idea that “there are several situations where we learn
from watching others through observation and derive experience with or without
reinforcement”.
Observational learning generally takes place
in a social situation involving a model and an imitator. The imitator observes the behaviour of model and expression and tries
to imitate it.
Bandura (1967, 1977) demonstrated
that modeling on the basis for a wide variety of children's behaviors.He recognized that children acquire many
favorable and unfavorable responses in the absence of direct rewards and
punishment, simply by watching and listening to others around them.
According to social learning theory, Imitation of models is the most important element in how children learn
a language, deal with aggression, develop a moral sense, and learn gender
appropriate behaviors. The model for it may be: a parent, teacher, a
television personality, a sports figure, a bandit criminal, or an admired friend.
Bandura's Experiment
Bandura
and his colleagues (Bandura, Ross & Ross, 1963) conducted a "Bobo
doll" experiment to determine whether children learn aggressive
behaviors by observing the actions of others. They hypothesized that children
who observed an adult behaving aggressively would be more aggressive than
children who observe an adult not behaving aggressively.
Nursery school children were assigned to two groups.
One group observed an
aggressive adult model, where an adult sat on a doll punched it in the nose,
insulted it verbally, and the other group observed a non-aggressive model, who
was quiet. After the observation, all
the children were given an opportunity to play with several toys including a
Bobo doll. Bandura and his colleagues found that children who
observed the aggressive model engaged in more aggressive behavior than those
who observed a non- aggressive model.
The observers of the aggressive model stunted verbal comments showed actions
similar to those shown by the model. In contrast, children in the control group
the non-aggressive model, showed no such behavior.
Process of observational Learning:
1. Motivational or reinforcement process: We do not give attention to the unattractive things. Observer increases
a type of behaviour for which they have seen other people being reinforced.
Example: an individual wants to be
pop singer seeing pop star performing highly successful(earning name and fame
in short time).Similarly: when An observer witness negative consequences
for a particular behaviour,there by reducing the tendency to behave in that
manner.
2. Attention Process: It is the 1st
basic process in which observational learner has to copy model. (Here the
observer most be judgmental, analytic and constructive to perceive the
activities of model.
3.Retention Process : (Rehearsal
phase) It is a 2nd process, which is basically
remembering Model for long time.(Models speech,behaviour,gestures,postures and
expression).The responses must be coded into some symbolic form as
sign,symbols,images,impressive words etc,in the absence of the model. Here, the
imitator must have to recall everything that they wants to copy)
4.
Motor Reproduction Phase: Here person translate symbolically coded memories
of model’s behaviour into response pattern.
Memory
Ø Memory is the record of
Experience.
Ø It is the Storehouse of
mind.
Ø It is the storage of
learned information of future use.
Ø It is the special
ability of our mind to conserve or store what has been previously experienced
or acquired through learning and then, at some later stage enable us to make
use of it (retrieval).
Or,
Memory is a system or process by which the
products or result of learning are stored for future use.
Ryburn, “Memory is the power that we have to store our experiences, and to bring
them into the field of consciousness sometime after the experience have
occurred”.
According to Melton (1963)“Learning has been
referred to as trace formation, Memory as trace Storage and
transfer of training as trace Utilization.”
Types of Memory:
1.
Immediate
Memory
2.
Short
Term Memory
3.
Long
Term Memory
1. Immediate Memory/Sensory Memory- Sensory memory is the earliest stage of memory.
During this stage, sensory information from the environment is stored for a
very brief period of time, generally for no longer .Sensory memory only lasts
about 0.5 sec to few second, depending upon the situation. It is out of
cognitive control and is an automatic response. With very short presentations,
participants often report that they seem to "see" more than they can
actually report.
Short time memory can
extend duration by :
Ø
Maintenance
Rehearsal-It is a repeatedly
verbalizing or thinking about information.
Example- If you
are given a number to dial you say the number over and over so that you don’t
forget in the time to dial.
Ø Maintenance Rehearsal-It is a repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about
information.
Example- If you are given a number to dial you say the number over and over so that
you don’t forget in the time to dial. However, some people are able to retain
much more information in their short-term memories by a process called
Ø Chunking method: which groups information by coding: it e.g. the
number 143254376 can be remembered by listing under three heads: 143, 254, 376.
Ø Primacy and recent effect : recent information can record simply.
3. Long Term Memory
Long Term Memory is
divided in to two parts: Explicit and Implicit Memory
1.Explicit memory (Declarative) is the
conscious, intentional recall of previous experiences and information.
2. Implicit memory( procedural) is a type of memory in which
previous experiences aid the performance of a task without conscious awareness
of these previous experiences. Implicit memory also leads to the
illusion-of-truth effect and procedural memory.
Illusion- of truth effect : subjects are more likely to rate as true those
statements that they have already heard, regardless of their
truthfulness.
procedural memory: allows people to remember how to tie their shoes or
ride a bicycle without consciously thinking about these activities.
Declarative
memory (sometimes referred to
as explicit memory) is one of two types of long-term human memory.
Declarative memory refers to memories that can be consciously recalled such as
facts and verbal knowledge.
Declarative memory can be divided into two
categories:
Episodic memory, which stores specific personal
experiences, and
Semantic memory,
which stores factual information.
Long-term memory refers to the continuing
storage of information. In
Freudian psychology, long-term memory would be called the preconscious and unconscious. This information is largely
outside of our awareness, but can be called into working memory to be used when
needed. Some of this information is fairly easy to recall, while other memories
are much more difficult to access.
Unlike short- Term Memory, long term memory has seemingly limitless capacity to
store information. Long term memory codes information according to
meaning, pattern and other Characteristics. Basic Eg- Fathers name, Date of Birth, Date of Marriage.
Memorization Process/There is
three major processes involved in memory:
Encoding,
Storage, and
Retrieval.
I. Encoding allows information that is from the outside world to
reach our senses in the forms of chemical and physical stimuli.
Generally we find two Encoding
process:
Automatic Encoding
Effortful Encoding
A. Automatic Encoding- It occurs without effort or with a little effort.
The material can be brought back easily. For example, whole day's events
can be recalled in a sequence without any interference. It is easy to recall
where the key was dropped. We go on recreating the picture mentally with recall
the sequence of the day's event, where we were yesterday, who was with us,
where we sat, what we wore, whom we talked with, etc.
b. Effortful Encoding- Encoding that requires attention and conscious
effort is called effortful processing. Eg-Remembering
formula, giving attention to professor words in class etc...
c. Storage: is the second memory stage or process. This
entails that we maintain information over periods of time. The encoded
experience recorded in the nervous system is called memory trace, neuro gram. If the
memory trace are not practice frequently they will pushed out of memory and
then forgotten. But the repeated materials are transferred to long term storage
system. Eg- Some telephone numbers are
used frequently and therefore stored on permanent basis.
iii. Retrieval
Finally the third process is the Retrieval of information that we have stored. We must
locate it and return it to our consciousness..
The different ways of
retrieving process.
A.Recall method-Recall is bringing past experience into present
consciousness in the absence of stimulus for example, in examination, we try to
recall the material we have learnt earlier in the absence of the notes or
copies we have prepared for this purpose.
b.Recognition Method – Recognition is retrieving the information in the
presence of the stimulus we have already experienced. This usually resembles
like a multiple choice test which requires the ability to recognize previously
learned or experienced material. Recognition is usually easier than recall
because we acknowledge that it is familiar.
C. Reconstruction
It is the method of serial order of presentation of learnt materials. If we
provide haphazardly or mixed-up, the individual requires to arrange them in an
orderly manner. To arrange orderly individual need to recall them properly and
accurately.
d. Cues: In psychology, retrieval cues are basically hints that could help you
retrieve a certain memory or piece of information. In a way, these cues serve
as your own mental reminders,
e. Relearning Method: Going through the material again. It is simpler than
original learning process. It is easier than original learning. It saves time,
effort and is simpler than original learning process. For example, if you once
learned something and then forgot it.
Four Memory Models
1.
Parallel Distributed processing model and
2.
Information processing Model,
3.
Level of
processing approach
4.
Traditional Three stage Memory Model
1. Parallel Distributed Processing Model –
The Parallel Distributed Processing Model is a
relatively new model regarding the processes of memory.
The model postulates that information is not inputted
into the memory system in a step by step manner like most models or theories
hypothesize but instead, facts or images are distributed
to all parts in the memory system at once.
A model of memory in which memory processes are proposed to take place at
the same time over a large network of neural connections .The information at different locations work as a unit and function in
parallel ways which can be accessed easily.
For example, while reading a book we need to
concentrate on vertical, horizontal, diagonal or waved lines or letters that
needs to be done quickly and smoothly in a balanced manner, to be perceived and
memorized.
FORGETTING
It is an apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in an
individual's long term memory. It
is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old memories are
unable to be recalled from memory storage. Forgetting has both
positive and Negative consequences in life.
Positive- It saves us from painful
memories, which make our life miserable. Thus forgetting helps us to relieve us.
Negative- Failure to recall the important material or event. One can loose
of opportunity.
Definition of Forgetting
Forgetting is the loss of information already
encoded and stored in long term memory. It is Failure to retain what has been
acquired.
Munn,”Forgetting is the loss, permanent or temporary
ability to recall or recognize something learned earlier.”
Drever, “Forgetting means failure at any time to recall
an experience when attempting to do so, or to perform an action previously
learned”
Bhatia, “Forgetting is the failure of the individual to
revive in consciousness an idea or group of ideas without the help of the
original stimuli”
Causes of Forgetting: Some of the theories of forgetting are:
1. Decay theory of Forgetting
2. Interference Theory of Forgetting
3. Motivated forgetting
Other ,General
Causes of Forgetting
Ø Retrieval failure
Ø Memory dysfunction
Ø Age,
Ø Disease,
Ø Biological mal functioning of the brain and
Nervous system,
Ø Accidents,
Ø Consumption of liquor or other intoxicating
materials etc..
1.INTERFERENCE:
Interference theory suggests that forgetting occurs because similar
memories interfere with the storage or retrieval of information. It explains that memory failure is not because of
the passage of time but is due to the intrusion of similar memories on one
another.
For example, students often become confused when two similar theories are learned at the
same time. It seems finding the right path in the neural system is difficult if
two paths are close together and look alike.
Cognitive psychologist distinguishes two kinds of
interference.
a.Retroactive interference: Information that was learned after the material we want to remember may
hinder the recall of the earlier learned material. In retroactive inhibition
the new learning may interfere with the old.
b.Proactive interference: When old memories that are already stored may be
recalled instead of the specific, recent memory .old information hinders new
information. Example, of proactive interference can be seen in every
January,Baisakh many people continue to write the previous year while writing
the date. Year while writing the date.2
2. Repression theory of Forgetting- A person represses those things that he/she is
not interested in. He said that repression is a biological process and because
of it, human can forget events that makes them, sad, worried, angry or scared.
3. Decay Theory of
Forgetting
It is the oldest explanation of forgetting. It is the most widely accepted
common sense held by layman in understanding forgetting. It explains that
forgetting takes place simply through the passage of time as a result of a
fading memory trace. This explanation assumes that learning leaves “trace” in the brain.
MEMORY DYSFUNCTIONS:
Memory losses due to some problems with the brain are related in this
category. Amnesia and Alzheimer's
are the two main memory disorders causing us to forget:
Similarities and
difference Amnesia & Alzheimer’s
Ø Both amnesia and Alzheimer’s have memory loss as
a symptom in common.
Ø Both amnesia and Alzheimer’s can be a permanent
condition but some cases of amnesia are treatable, but Alzheimer’s is a
terminal disease as no cure has been found as yet.
Ø There are many kinds of amnesia, but only one
type of Alzheimer’s.
Ø Amnesia only affects the psychological state of
a person while Alzheimer’s affects the psychological, emotional, and physical
condition of a person.
1. Amnesia: Amnesia
is partial or total inability to recall or identify past experience. It is the
'disease of memory. In the amnesic state the individual cannot
remember his name, does not
know how old he is or where he resides yet his basic habit patterns such as his
ability to read/ talk and so on remain undamaged/ and he seems quite normal
aside from the amnesia. Amnesia
occurs after experiencing a physical or psychological trauma.
Amnesia resulting from psychological trauma includes:
i.
Dissociative
amnesia the individual is unable to
recall important personal information. It occurs suddenly, doesn't affect new
information, and frequently end up as abruptly as it began.
ii.
Dissociative
fugue -The individual wanders away from
home, and then days, weeks, or sometimes even years later suddenly finds him in
a strange place. He has no idea of how he got there because of loss of memory.
iii.
Multiple
personality: The individual may change from one
personality to another from a few minutes to several years. Here person has two
or more separate personalities, which usually alternate, one may be carefree,
fun loving while the other quite, studious and serious.
Psychodynamic theorists describe multiple personality
as resulting from early traumas such as:Sexual assault or Physical
punishment
2. Alzheimer’s disease:
Alzheimer's disease is one of the dementia in which the individual has
deterioration of memory. Dementia may be due to a :
Ø Small stroke,
Ø A brain tumor, or
Ø Alcoholism which progressively damages brain,
causing mental erosion.
In Alzheimer's disease the victim shows:
Ø Progressive loss of intelligence,
Ø Loss of memory, and
Ø Loss of general awareness.
False memories
False memories are distorted or even fictitious (imaginary) memories of
events that did not actually happen. People can feel completely confident that
their memory is accurate, but this confidence is no guarantee that a particular
memory is correct.
Factors that influence false memory include :
Ø Misinformation,
Ø Misattributing the original source of the
information,
Ø Existing knowledge, and
Ø Other past memories,
Ø Daydreaming
False memories can be stronger and more vivid, which mislead new
information or experiences. False
memories feel like real memories. It is even possible to remember something
that never really happened.
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