psychology

Unit-1, Introduction of psychology as a science of mind and Behaviour (5 Hours)

Nature ,Modern History of psychology, Common sense of Psychology, Similarities and differences with other social science Perspectives of Psychology ( Biological Perspectives, Cognitive Perspective, Behavioral Perspective, Psychodynamic and Humanistic ,Scientific method and psychological Research

Common Sense of Psychology

Common Sense knowledge is the locally developed knowledge acquired through the experiences of the people in their daily life. Many people carry the common sense of psychology some common misconceptions people hold about psychology are:

Ø  Psychologists are face readers.

Ø  Some others perceive that psychologists can even read mind.

Ø  Similarly, some people consider psychologists as the ones who deal with mentally ill people only,

Ø  A person feels that Psychologists are fortune teller like astrologers. Can estimate character at glance.

‘Due to such misconceptions, people often feel uncomfortable to talk with the persons from psychology.

Meaning of Psychology:

Psychology is derived from two Greek Word: Psyche (soul) + logos (study or, Science)

In its history of evolution. Psychology was known as the Study of the Soul.

Before arriving to the modern definition, psychology went to a very difficult period or, it had undergone several stages and Meaning.

The main four stages of psychology are:-

Ø  Philosophical stage- Study of Soul/Mind

Ø  Structural stage till -Science of mental life, Consciousness

Ø  Behaviorist stage- Science as the observable behaviour

Ø  Modern stage, till date - Today it is considered as the Science of behaviour and mental process.

Definition of Psychology

According to NL Munna,” Psychology is concerned with the scientific investigation of behaviour”.

Recently, David G. Myers (1997) defined psychology as 'the science of behavior and mental processes'.

Robert S. Feldman in 2000 defined psychology as the 'scientific study of human behavior and mental processes. ‘

Meaning of Behaviour

Behavior is the sum total activity of a person that reflects directly or indirectly. behaviour includes anything of a person or animal which can be observed in some way. The term behaviour includes all the motor, cognitive and affective activities. It includes both, Overt and Covert behaviour.

a.      Overt – behavior that can be observed directly.(Facial expression, gesture)

b.      Covert - Internal Subjective Experiences. Or measured through special instruments or techniques. Such as: Sensation, Thought, Emotions, Feelings and Motives that others cannot directly observe

S-R and S-O-R Paragigm

Ø  S- Stimulus (Input) Stimulus is the Variable which initiates activity for e.g. - Lights, Sounds Incentives .Stimulus sometimes is referred in terms of the sense organ which is affected e.g. Visual stimulus, auditory stimulus and so on…

Ø  O-Organism (processing)It is known as individual variables (of any age sex, education level, personal values, aspirations, intelligence, thoughts which has great role in organism for resulting response)

Ø  R- Response (output) Responses are different depending upon the species and stimulus e.g. Blinking eye is the response to an intense light (stimulus), crying in pain, smile while being happy etc...

S-R	S-O-R
This theory believes that organism responds according to the nature of stimulus(Stimulus response)	This approach believes that nature of stimulus and nature of organism play role in the particular response (stimulus- organism- Response)
Watson and Pavlov advocates this concept	Woodworth and other psychologists advocated this concept
Organism is considered to be passive	There is the organism to play active role in responding.
Not included mental Process	Included mental process.

Nature/Feature/Characteristics of Psychology

Ø  Psychology is the study of human behaviour and mental process.

Ø  The word 'psychology' was coined in 1590 by Rudolf Goeckle. It is derived from two Greek words Psyche and Logos which means the soul and study or science.

Ø  Scientific psychology began in 1879 when first laboratory was established and human mind and behavior was systematically studies.

Ø  It makes prediction about human behaviours.

Ø  It has its own applied aspects .Various branches of applied psychology are: Industrial, Legal, Clinical, Educational psychology etc...

Ø  There are different methods to study psychology. Eg-Case study, experiment, scientific, observation etc...

Ø  Psychology possesses a body of Fact/search for truth. Doesn't believe in Stereotypes or Superstition.

Ø  It believes that every behaviour has its root, the factors of Causing, Influencing or, Nurturing.

Ø  It believes in Cause and Effective relationships.

GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY

a.       To describe/Understand human behavior

b.      To predict human behavior

c.       To control or modifying human behavior

d.      Improving the Quality of life.

DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS DEFINITION

Ø  Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychological Laboratory in 1879 in .Thus, the concept of modern psychology begin.

Ø  Definitions of ’soul and 'mind in psychology were completely rejected in this period. Wundt put forwarded the idea that psychology is the description and explanation of “states of consciousness”. And the "The subject matter of psychology became consciousness- introspection became method in Psychology became the subject of scientific investigate.

Ø  Later, John B. Watson criticized the content (consciousness) and put forwarded the idea that “psychology is the science of observable behavior”(S-R approach to psychology).

Ø  Later, the observable behavior (S-R) failed to explain many complex behaviors and put forwarded the idea of S-O-R which emphasized both behavior and cognitive processes are important to examine and to get a complete picture of human functioning.

Ø  Other perspectives like Psychoanalysis and Gestalt psychology were also in practice.

Ø  David G. Myers (1997) defined psychology as 'the science of behavior and mental processes’. Robert S.

Ø  Feldman in 2000 defined psychology as the 'scientific study of human behavior and mental processes. ‘

Contemporary Perspectives/Theories in Psychology (School of Thoughts in Psychology)

1.      Structuralism Perspective,

2.      Functionalism Perspective

3.      Gestalt Psychology

4.      Biological Perspective,

5.      Cognitive perspective,

6.      Behavioral Perspective- Watson- learning Experience in Shaping Behaviour.

7.      Psychodynamic Perspective-Sigmund Freud-Emphasized on unconscious motives.

8.      Humanistic Perspective – Abrahm Maslow- freedom in controlling human behaviour.

9.      Socio-Cultural  Perspective

10.  Evolutionary Perspective

1. Structuralism (mental approach: Structure of mind, consciousness)

Wundt germinated structuralism but US psychologists Titchner developed this school of thought. Woundt , Father of experimental Psychology , Regarded ,Psychology as the science of consciousness. Structuralism is a mental approach to study human nature. It emphasizes on the study of structure of mental process (that constitute consciousness) Wundt and Tichner use Introspection method for studying the structure of conscious experience.

2. Functionalism (mental approach: Function of mind)

Ø  Functionalism formed as a reaction to the structuralism and was heavily influenced by the work of William James.

Ø  Functionalism Criticize Wundt’s Ideas of Introspection that Self-reporting may be socially colored and not revealing the truth.

Ø  Functionalists sought to explain the mental processes in a more systematic manner. Rather than focusing on the elements of consciousness, functionalists focused on the purpose of consciousness and behavior.

Or, Functionalism focus on how the mind functions to adapt with different environment. James was concerned with what the mind could do rather than its structure. According to James, studying the elements of mind could tell us nothing about how it functions to meet the demands of life.

3. Behaviorism psychology (S-R Psychology)

Structuralism and Functionalism were soon challenged by Behaviorism J.B Watson, Ivan Pavlov and B.F skinner are the behaviorist psychologists. These psychologists defined psychology as the science of Behaviour.

They proposed that psychology should study the visible behaviour which can be felt and seen. The criticize abstract concept like mind and consciousness are unnecessary to study.

Thus, Watson explained psychology as “the positive Science of Behaviour”. We cannot observe a sensation, feeling or, thought but we can observe people’s behavior as they respond to different situation”

4. Gestalt psychology (Early Cognitive approach)

Gestalt is a German word that is translated as: whole, form, pattern, configuration or organized structure in English. Developed by Wertheimer, Kohler and Koffka. They proposed that “ human are born with the ability to organize  the elements of our perceptual world by producing to best  or, most complete meaning of the environmental object “The Slogan of Gestalts ,"The whole is greater than sum of its parts.“Their main focus was on experience of perception and learning.

   Eg-    /-/  we pereive this line as alphabet H.

5. Psychoanalytic /psychodynamic perspective (mental approach)

Sigmund Freud developed this theory and he advocate that:

Ø  Mind has three levels — consciousness, subconscious and unconscious

Ø  Mind has three Structure of Mind-ID,EGO,SUPER EGO

He emphasis that childhood is important in later personality development (the child is the father to the man) He believes that behaviour is determined by inner forces (ID, Ego and super Ego)

The root of psychological problems are motives of sexual and aggressive nature which stay at the.

Freud’s assumed that all thoughts, emotions, and actions are determined by our mind. {Nothing is accidental)

6. Humanistic Psychology

This Perspective is developed by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers during 1950s and 1960s.According to them each person is a unique individual and experience the world differently. Free will give freedom to choose.

Humanists rejects

Ø  The Freudian idea that personality is ruled by unconscious forces and

Ø  The behaviorist idea that we are controlled by the environment.

Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow put forwarded the idea of:

Ø  This perspective views that, we should study the behaviour from subjective point of view to understand individual completely.

Ø  Human beings are positive beings and have enormous capacity for personal growth and desire to take control of their own lives.

Ø  The major contribution of this perspective is the development of psychotherapeutic techniques which is very much useful for the treatment of psychological disease. By the help of psychotherapy, focusing on the individuals free will, values.(Carl Rogers)

8. The Physiological or Biological Perspective

Ø  The Contributor of this perspective is Lesley

Ø  This perspective focus its attention on Biological Basis of Behaviour. Every Human Behaviour is related to physiological changes within the body. (Such as: Nervous system, hormones and neurotransmitter)This perspective also study Neurotransmitters that influence normal and abnormal behavior.

Ø  The working relationship between the body, behavior and mental process is main focus of biological perspective)

9. Cognitive Perspective

Ø  George Miller and Jerome Bruner are contributor of this perspective. Cognition is a mental process in which the information is obtained, processed, transformed, stored, retrieved and used.

Ø  This perspective believes that behaviour is the result of cognition.

Ø  Difference in behavior depends on the way we process information. Example- One student may regard same college as excellent and another may perceive it as boring(their view is different according to their cognitive interpretation)

10. Evolutionary Perspective

Ø  Evolutionary perspective is based on the work developed by Charles Darwin who popularized the theory of evolution almost 150 years ago.

Ø  Role of physical structure and behaviour plays in the adoption process of an organism to the environment.

Ø  The fact that species vary in different ways. (Color, shape, size, intelligence, personality, and health) which influences their behaviour.  

 Example: Men displays their emotions more directly (hitting, kicking).Where as women display more indirect aggression (gossiping, Scolding).

11. Philosophical perspective (Soul/Mind) -  

Ø  During this period psychology was the major Branch of Philosophy. Greek philosopher believes that soul is responsible for the mental activities like: Thinking, feeling etc.They also believes that soul also controls each and every action of individuals.

Ø  Plato, Socrates and Aristotle were the famous philosophers, who tried to explain the nature of Soul and unconscious activities during sleep. (The dream work, Fainting spell, Epileptic Fits were regarded as expression of soul).

Ø  Aristotle Life has no meaning without soul, the heart is the Seat of Soul. Heart and Soul are inseperarable.

Ø  Plato define ‘psychology as a science of Soul’ similarly, Greek called ‘Psychology as a science of Soul and mind’.

Ø  Those philosophers believes that Knowledge could be acquired through the soul but not through the sensory perceptions.

12. Social Cultural Perspective:

It focus on Social and cultural factor that can influence behaviour. It believes that behaviour is the result of Socio-cultural factor. It believes that our attitude, values, ethics, personality, religious view, ethnicity, gender role are shaped by our surroundings or, culture. This perspective believes that socialization process shapes our psychology (personality, beliefs, attitudes, skills) it also Focus on the influence of how behavior and thinking vary across diverse cultures. Culture is defined as the patterns of behavior, beliefs and values that are shared by group of people. (The language, moral beliefs, ethical values, traditions, superstitions, eating behaviour etc.)

Psychology as a Science/Psychology as an Empirical Science

We can divide all the science in two broad categories-

Ø  Natural/Physical/pure science- physics, chemistry, Astronomy and mathematics

Ø  Social Science/Behavioural science- psychology, sociology, economics, and political science etc. Psychology falls under the category of Social Science.

Empirical - (Practical Experiences)

The contribution by Wundt has been important in helping to make psychology itself as a science..

As a Science psychology has some basic Character

1.      Investigation is possible: psychology conducts many experiments directly and employs scientific methods.

2.      Observation and Experiment is possible- Psychology has its own lab.

3.      Accurate measurement is possible- Psychology includes measurement it has many (clear) tests and measurements to assign (personality, Disorders, IQ etc...)

4.      Objectivity is possible- judgment based on observable phenomena and influencing by emotions and personal prejudges.

5.      Prediction is possible- It makes prediction about human behaviors.

6.      Generalization is possible-The data is recertified as various statical tools available for facts measurement.

7.      It studies cause effect relationship

8.      Psychology is systematic and use scientific method- psychologists collect information of events by careful observation in controlled experiments.

The tests done by one psychologists is no matter how many times the test repeated, the answer must always be same.

Similarities and difference between psychology and other social science.

1.      Psychology and Sociology

2.      Psychology and history

3.      Psychology and Philosophy

4.      Psychology and Political Science

5.      Psychology and Anthropology

6.      Psychology and Economics

1. Psychology and Sociology

Without understanding the psychological aspects of an individual it is difficult to analyze social issues. Karl Pearson, “The relationship between sociology and Social Psychology is to close, the two are not separate Science”.

Psychology also greatly value social and cultural influences on human beings which is the major subject matter of sociology. Both the science study the issues/activities like: Co-operation and conflict, support and boycott, intimacy and detest ,Group Behaviour , attitudes, values etc.Thus, What sort of People do what specific type of activities is the subject matter of the both sciences.

Differences:

Ø  Both the subject emerge as the separate discipline.

Ø  Sociology is a science of society. Psychology is the science of behavior.

3. Political science and psychology

Psychology as a Behavioral Science regards politics as one of the important aspect of study, it studies the political interest, level of participation in politics, political behavior and relationship. Psychology Studies the Specific Motivation of individual towards politic or political Agenda. To understand the political Complications, it is necessary to understand psychological aspect of individual. Psychological knowledge is needed to understand the subject matter of political science and vice versa. The foundation of each and every  political phenomenon is individual’s thought and inspiration(persons psychology)Talking about research methods, both political science and psychology focus on questionnaire, case study, observation, interview, social survey etc.

Difference

Ø  Psychology is regarded as the science of individual behaviour where political science as the science of state.

Ø  Political science is only related with political issue where as psychology covers broader issues.

Anthropology and psychology

Study area of both the science is individual/ human beings. To some extent, the techniques and method of study is similar. Both make scientific study of the society. (Observation, questionnaires, interview, fieldwork study etc).Anthropology studies the direct and indirect impact of social organization and institutions in the behavior of an individual, which is also included in the study of psychology.

Differences

Ø  Psychology and anthropology emerged as separate disciplines as they had distinct nature and characteristics.

Ø  Regarding the subject matter, various facts of an individual is focused in anthropology but, behaviour of an individual is focused in psychology.

Ø  Anthropology studies primitive society where as psychology focus more on present by making the base of past.

Economics and Psychology

Life is very much dependent upon financial aspect: Both psychology and economics have the common platform of studies.

Example-Lack of proper facility, level of occupation, types of Luxurious goods, unemployment etc may lead to conflicts frustration and stress, which are important focus area of psychology. The impact of Economy is the issue to study psychology. Most of the time the problems on society arise due to the economic factors, we need to acknowledge and explore the actual nature of social problem by the help of psychological study.

Differences between economic and psychology

Ø  Both the discipline emerged as a separate discipline.

Ø  Psychology studies human behaviour where economics studies economic relationship with human beings.

Psychology and other social Science( The following points is common for all the social science)

Similarities:

Ø  Both the discipline are the social Science, because both the science are concerned with society and the relationships among individuals within a society

Ø  Both the science can share the subject matter of their study.

Ø  Both the science has similar methods or techniques of Study .Such as: Survey, Case study, Scientific Method.

Ø  Both the science has larger Impact of Culture.

Differences:

Ø  Both the science emerges as the separate discipline.

Ø  Write the definition of both the science.

Methods of studying Psychology

Psychology is termed as the scientific study of Behaviour. There are number of methods and techniques depending upon the types and nature of the condition which observation have been recorded:

1. Observation Method:

This method is easy simple and traditional. It provides valuable information about human behaviour. Human behaviour is more extensively understood in its own environment rather than in a laboratory. Observation may be Subjective or Objective.

a)      Subjective observation- It is the process by which the people, rather than outsider observe their own feelings desires and experiences (Introspection).A person is encouraged to voice out their feelings by giving them Questionnaires, through discussion and interviews and also by giving them topic to speak on.

The weakness of this method is –

Ø   People may alter the truth or hide harmful or fearful issues that they would like to forget.

Ø  Some errors in judgment may occur in observation or interpretation.

Ø  Children, old people, mental patients cannot observe and explain properly.

B.     Objective observation- Observation done by others. It is done in natural setting and psychologist only observe individuals behaviour and reactions without any interference.

2. Experimental Method:

This Method is Formalize and accurate of all scientific method in study. The prime method of inquiry in science is the experiment. The key features are:

Ø  Control over variables,

Ø  Careful measurement, and

Ø  Establishing cause and effect relationships.

An experiment is an investigation in which a hypothesis is scientifically tested. In an experiment, an independent variable (the cause) is manipulated and the dependent variable (the effect) is measured, any unnecessary variables are controlled. Where the experiments should be objective (The views and opinions of the researcher should not affect the results of a study) because this is good as it makes the data more valid, and less bias.

In 1979, Wundt established first psychology laboratory at Leipzing University in Germany and since then it has gained good standing in its ability to provide reliable statistics in experimental way. The experiments or research takes place in special laboratories under artificially controlled conditions. Which requires special equipment’s, well planned and facilitated laboratory, equipment’s, Subject and experimenter, problems, objectives, hypothesis etc. In Experimental method certain hypothesis is framed on the basis of the previous findings, and is tested systematically.

Advantages:

Ø  Accuracy/ Replication of result(same result again and again)

Ø  Useful in generalizing by demonstrating the finding.

Limitations:

Ø  This method cannot be used on situation of choice

Ø  It is difficult to keep the person controlled fully.

Ø  It is very difficult to study unconscious mind of individual.

Ø  Sometime a person shows irregular behaviour in a controlled environment. So reliability may decrease.

A well plan experimental method follows certain steps.

1.      Raising a problem: In everyday life many factors influences our behaviour.Sometime we are puzzled and ask questions to ourselves as to why people act as they do? These inquiry leads us to raise problem before us.(Experiments starts with a problem)

2.      Formation of Hypothesis (testable prediction): It is the assumption made to test the problem(the hypothesis may be proved or disproved by the result)

3.      Distinguish between Dependent and independent variables: The independent variable is the cause. Sometime the independent variable is may be an object of the environment( noise,light,temperature,sound) or characteristics of the organism(rich,poor,caste,sex,intelligence) whereas, the dependent variable is response/effect.

4.      Controlling the environment or situation: During experiment experimenter need to control the extraneous variables which negatively affect the experiment. (This helps to focus on relevant aspect and eliminate irrelevant aspects.

5.      Analysis of result: the scientific enquiry requires result to be analyzed properly by comparing the dependent and independent variable. This is done through stastical Procedure.

6.      Verification of hypothesis by the result: After analyzing the results the next important step is to verify the assumptions made in the experiment (hypothesis), whether the hypothesis is proved or dis proved.

3. Clinical Method

This is used only when people come to psychologists with personal problems.  Information is collected by interviewing the person.  They collect complete history of the subject and record in the format of case study/case history. Then only start to deal with the problem.

4. Statistical Method:

For psychology to be recognized as a science, stasticsis is very important. The data received from studies are interpreted with the help of this method. Or, the term statistical method refers to the method that is used to measure social phenomena mathematically. It also helps to analyze the collected data. Different psychological tests like the intelligence test, personality tests etc are standardized through this method.

5) Survey Method :

To understand Human behavior, survey method is more important .Large number of information can gather quickly in low cost. This method uses Questionnaires, interviews, rating scales etc. To collect information. Information usually collects on mass. Such as Election, Consumers interest, thoughts of family planning, women's right etc…Analysis of information received from this method gives light on inner mentality of an average the survey method must be conducted by a trained and experienced person.

Advantages:

Ø  Gather large amount of information easily and quickly.

Ø  Very economic and flexible.(Flexible in the sense we can use other methods too while using this method).

Ø  Trend personnel are also not required during data collection because questionnaire is fixed in advance.

Limitation:

Ø  People may not response honestly.

Ø  Only surface information can be revealed by this method.

Ø  The sample taken may not represent whole population.

6) Case Study Method: It involves detail investigation of a single individual or single organized group. This method is specially used for diagnosis and treatment.  It attempts to analyze the life history of the person from birth to present situation. Observing and interviewing the near ones and guardians is also included in this method.It helps to find out the causes of behaviour disorders.

Advantages:

Ø  It can study particular case in detail.

Ø  While conducting case study we can use observation and interview method thus, is considered as flexible.

Ø  It is very much useful in clinical setting for diagnosis and treatment of problem.

Ø  In-depth study of an issues.“Burgess called this method as Social Microscope”

Disadvantages

Ø  Time consuming.

Ø  Costly

Ø  Generalization is difficult because of in-depth study.

6. Scientific Method and psychological Research

Scientific practice helps psychologists to know that they have obtained the most accurate and useful knowledge of mental processes and human behavior. The scientific method allows us to declare our conclusions, to the point where it is reasonable to treat them as factual. The scientific word for a claim is hypothesis. A hypothesis is a testable. Scientific method and psychological Research- Science basically means a systematic and objective study of a problem. The scientific method allows us to declare our conclusions, to the point where it is reasonable or, factual. Scientific practice helps psychologists to know that they have obtained the most accurate and useful knowledge of mental processes and human behavior.

1.      Formulation of problem/Identification of problem: Problem may be simple or complex it should be defined properly in order to investigate the various fact causing it, otherwise result may mis the direction effort may be waste.

2.      Formulation of Hypothesis- After the identification of problem we must have some idea that are likely to discover. Hypothesis is possible outcome which has not yet been proved to be correct.

3.      Observation /Experimentation and collection of Data- The formulated hypothesis has to be tested. It requires the observation and collection of facts. Different measurement scales and test are used for identification  of problem.(e.g.- personality test, aptitude test ,IQ test scales)

4.      Analysis of collected information/detail/data- After the data have been collected in order to draw the conclusion data has to analyze properly by arranging the data in different groups.

5.      Conclusion/testing hypothesis- After the data have been collected, proceed and analyzed we have to conclude.(findings).(Then the result is tested to the hypothesis, if the result is same then it is considered as elaborated hypothesis)

6.      Generalization- The findings are considered to be true for other similar situation. (In some cases it may not be 100% true). E.g- There is 90% of chances for relapse.

7.      Formulation of theory and law –When the fact has been tested and accepted by the majority people, it is considered as a law or theory.